This week I am going to post a paper that I wrote during my doctoral studies. The subject is Charles Ives and his Concord Sonata. I studied classical performance for my DMA degree so I took every opportunity to write about 20th century composers or anything else that is mostly relevant to being a saxophonist and jazz player. I hope you find it interesting!
It took more than a decade for Charles Ives to fully conceive of the Concord Sonata and its accompanying literary work Essays Before a Sonata. These works, originally meant by the composer to be published together, are the culmination of Ives’s explorative musical concepts as well as his studies and interest in transcendentalism. The Concord Sonata is a four movement work in which each movement is named for the New England transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Bronson and Louisa May Alcott, and Henry David Thoreau. Charles Ives’s omission of bar lines in the “Emerson” movement from Concord Sonata is evidence of his refusal to embrace the traditional musical conventions of form and aesthetic beauty; this music, as well as his reactions to the power structure of society written in part two of his Essays, all reflect his admiration and adhesion to the principles of Ralph Waldo Emerson’s transcendentalist philosophy.
At first perusal of the score of Concord Sonata, one will notice that there is no key signature throughout the work and the piece is composed with accidentals throughout. Even more significant to the structure of the four movements of the piece is the rhythmic concept. For instance, the “Emerson” movement starts with a tempo that is marked “Slowly.” The composer writes in his performance notes that the tempo
“varies usually with the mood of the day, as well as that of Emerson, the other Concord bards, and the player. A metronome cannot measure Emerson’s mind and oversoul, any more than the old Concord Steeple Bell could. Starting tempo is 72-80 but on the first page may climb over 100 though the tempi need not be precisely the same, each time played. The same essay or poem of Emerson may bring a slightly different feeling when read at sunrise than when read at sunset.”1
These performance instructions suggest immediately to the performer that the tempo may not remain steady within a performance or similar between performances. In addition, there are long segments of the piece that contain no bar lines or time signature. The rhythm is approximate and is left solely to the performer and how the muse strikes. This rhythmic ambiguity seems to contribute to the most significant meaning of the work; Ives’s rhythmic ambiguity challenges the performer to ponder the deeper meaning of the work through introspection and self-reflection.
Performers do in fact interpret “Emerson” in much different ways. For example, the recording of pianist Bojan Gorisek2 spans more than twenty minutes while Marc-André Hamelin’s recording3 of the same movement is less than sixteen minutes. While investigating the recordings of Steven Mayer4 and Gilbert Kalish,5 both approximately eighteen minutes in duration, I have found drastic differences in tempo and rhythmic approach within internal sections of the work. Just as Ives suggested in his performance notes, the overall character of the piece is greatly affected by the tempo in which the performer chooses to play the work.
My observation of recordings of “Emerson”—not taking into account the quality of recording or instrument played—is that the harmonies and sonority can be a bit murky if played too briskly. Also, because there are no bar lines delineating phrase structures and cadences, performers tend to interpret the phrasing in many different ways. For instance, the Beethoven’s Fifth motive that occurs on the second system of the first page is discernible in some performances more than others.
It is transcendentalism that inspired the composer Ives to empower the performer to interpret the Concord Sonata as he or she sees fit. To Ives, transcendentalism represented the freedom of the individual and this freedom manifested itself in how the composition was understood by the pianist and therefore performed. The composer, also an accomplished pianist and organist, said:
“It is a peculiar experience and, I must admit, a stimulating and agreeable one that I’ve had with this Emerson music. It may have something to do with the feeling I have about Emerson, for every time I read him I seem to get a new angle of thought and feeling and experience from him. ….I find that I don’t play or feel like playing this music even now in the same way each time.”6
Ives ruminated on “Emerson” for so many years that the second edition was released in 1947, nearly three decades after the first edition. He referred to the piece as a “transcription” instead of “composition” and admitted that he would likely never be finished tinkering with the final version of the work. He once joked that he would himself perform and record the piece two or three different ways and then “Henry Cowell or Nicolas Slonimsky or some other acoustical genius could write it out.”7
Beyond the Ives’s biting, sarcastic humor, or the confusion created by the Essays or his ambiguous Concord Sonata, some writers suggest a misunderstanding of transcendentalist philosophy. Stuart Feder claims that:
“Certainly entire passages of the Essays as well as other published writings do not make a great deal of sense. What parallel there may be in the vast output of music creates an ambiguity that is part of its fascination.”8
Geoffrey Block states that:
“Ives’s approach to transcendentalism was a misreading of the Concord writers. Much of Ives’s interpretation of transcendentalism, like his musical language, is idiosyncratic and personal.”9
While I will avoid the argument about the nonsensical nature of Ives’s prose, I do believe that the Essays and Concord Sonata exhibit characteristics of transcendentalism.
The Encyclopaedia Britannica defines the New England Transcendentalists as:
“writers and philosophers in New England who were loosely bound together by adherence to an idealistic system of thought based on a belief in the essential unity of all creation, the innate goodness of man, and the supremacy of insight over logic and experience for the revelation of the deepest truths….”10
Later in the Encyclopaedia Britannica definition, it states that transcendentalists were “leaders in such contemporary reform movements” because of their “repudiation of the whole established order.” The unity of all creation, innate goodness of man, and supremacy of insight over logic and experience are characteristics within Ives’s writing and music and a repudiation of established order is more than apparent in part two of Ives’s Essays, which address political issues of his day.
In the prologue of Essays Before a Sonata Ives grapples with the notion of whether his music is program music and ultimately his argument is ambiguous. “Emerson” from Concord Sonata is music that Ives intended would provide “composite pictures or impressions” of Ralph Waldo Emerson.11 Ives was certainly qualified to base his music and prose on Emerson’s beliefs. The composer’s family was interested in the transcendentalists and had most likely either exposed or indoctrinated him with some of the philosophy; his grandmother attended an Emerson lecture and apparently knew his writing “almost by memory.”12 When Ives was at Yale, Emerson was the topic of his senior essay and the influence of this philosophy continued later in his life. In an interview with the pianist John Kirkpatrick, Ives’s wife Harmony responded to the question about whether her husband modeled his life after Emerson’s. She replied that she “didn’t think he would have thought of it that way” and goes on to say he felt “unworthy to set out to model his life on Emerson’s” and that “he had such an exalted idea of Emerson” and was “very intimately and very deeply influenced by him.”13
In Preface to Essays Before a Sonata, Ives writes “The whole is an attempt to present (one person’s) impression of the spirit of transcendentalism that is associated in the minds of many with Concord, Mass., of over a half century ago.”14 It must be noted that the town of Concord was the home of the New England Transcendentalists Emerson, Thoreau, Alcott family, and Hawthorne and this town represented to Ives the transcendentalist ideals. Ives first visited Concord on his honeymoon in 1908 and then again in 1916 and it was because of these visits the concept of the Concord Sonata was born.15
The transcendentalist meaning of Concord represents nostalgia since Ives is a 20th century composer who has penned a composition that celebrates transcendentalists from more than a half century past. David Metzer suggests that this nostalgia is triggered by the tragic loss of Ives’s father, George, and that “anxieties in the moment inspire the backward glance.”16
One way in which nostalgia manifests itself in the Concord Sonata is through the use of borrowed melodies. Though there is much speculation about many other additional borrowings, the composer acknowledged that he used the Stephen Foster composition Massa’s in De Cold Ground and the four note motive from Beethoven’s Symphony No. 5.17 The question remains to me as to whether the Foster melody was meant by Ives to represent the relationship between transcendentalism and the institution of slavery (Thoreau and his family aided with the Underground Railroad) or if he used it simply as a means of producing an aural snapshot of nineteenth century America. George Ives fought in the Civil War so Charles Ives would have been acutely aware of the antebellum America and the struggles of equality championed by the transcendentalists.
The Beethoven reference represents deep connections for Ives between the “spirituality and excellence”18 of Beethoven’s composition with Emerson’s prose. In the Essays, Ives writes:
“There is an “oracle” at the beginning of the Fifth Symphony; in those four notes lies on of Beethoven’s greatest messages. We would place its translation above the relentlessness of fate knocking at the door, above the greater human message of destiny, and strive to bring it towards the spiritual message of Emerson’s revelations, even to the “common heart” of Concord—the soul of humanity knocking at the door of the divine mysteries, radiant in the faith that it will be opened – and the human become the divine!”19
This symphony dates to very early in the nineteenth century but its beauty and intensity still remain.
The author Stuart Feder addresses nostalgia completely differently by attempting to access Ives’s personality. Feder suggests that the composer had “chaotic elements” in his mental life that created “depression that at times defied modulation” and he diverted his negative impulses into his musical composition.20 In addition to the loss of his father, Ives was also coping with his wife Harmony’s inability to bear children.21 As a consequence, Ives was unable to replace his sadness about his father’s death with a new father-son relationship in which he switched to the role of father. Feder writes:
“The “idea” of Concord had a deeper significance to Ives. Its meaning may be enriched by an understanding of the discordant elements in his mental life. Emotional instability was already in evidence during the early years of marriage. A tendency to moodiness in which nostalgia trenched upon depression had emerged clearly in early adulthood. Moods characterized by excitement and even elation occasionally vied with more subdued moods for ascendancy.”22
On the contrary, some of the positive aspects of the composer’s life, which included a high salary, continued success in business, professional as well as musical accolades, and an enduring marriage, Ives may have been content with the present. David Metzer provides a very intriguing view of nostalgia in Ives’s music when he states:
“nostalgics like Ives attempt to flee from such concerns through memory, they ultimately do not want to escape the present, desiring instead that the past remain in the past. Above all, they cultivate the distance between the two, a gap that makes the pleasures of nostalgia possible.”23
I agree with Metzer and believe that Ives has feelings of loss or desire pertaining to the past but he gained pleasure by fascinating about days gone by.
Whether a consequence of nostalgia for a lost father or through admiration of a great thinker, many sources point to Emerson as being a father figure to Charles Ives. Ives’s admiration for Emerson is in part represented by the way that the composer structured the Concord Sonata. The earliest reviews of Concord Sonata not only mentioned the extreme difficulty of the work but also the odd jumbled form that was perceived. Ives likely rationalized this outpouring of ideas with Emerson’s improvisatory speeches. The composer’s grandmother had once gone to hear Emerson speak and was shocked to discover that his printed text that she had nearly committed to memory was merely an outline for the lecture that Emerson would give in front of a live audience.24 The author Lloyd Whitesell claims, “For Ives, Emerson’s underlying plan of work seems based on the large unity of a series of particular aspects of a subject rather than the continuity of its expression.”25
The word unity that Whitesell uses to describe Emerson’s plan is precisely the same word from the expression “essential unity of all creation” that is used in the aforementioned Encyclopaedia Britannica article about transcendentalism. It is from this understanding of unity in transcendentalism that Ives justifies the form of Concord Sonata. The lack of bar lines exemplifies this concept. One could argue that the lack of bar lines unifies the piece instead of separating the piece into sections. Without bar lines, it is one long and open idea. Similarly, one could argue that the insertion of bar lines would provide an order in the composition that is not necessary to defining the underlying meaning of the music. The decision that Ives made to omit bar lines contributes to a transcendental unity. When Ives played the Concord Sonata, he interpreted it in the same way that Emerson delivered his lectures loosely based on his notes.
The lack of bar lines also is important to how the music was perceived. The ways that Ives manipulated form often had an effect on the perceived beauty of the music. For example, the composer’s father encouraged his son to study and hear bitonality and the result was reflected in Ives’s portfolio of works. “One of Ives's main creative impulses was to free music from customary restrictions and to jar the audience from its habits of listening.”26 Ives once said “the pen and eyes are inclined by habit and custom to make the music somewhat more static than it should be…. the pen and eyes help the ear and mind keep too easily and steadily to their nice old customs and habits.”27 Ives was concerned with challenging the listener to embrace new music and its perceived oddities. It was his understanding of transcendentalism that beauty is secondary to truth. Ives said:
"It must be remembered that truth was what Emerson was after—not strength of outline or even beauty.... To think hard and deeply and to say what is thought regardless of consequences may produce a first impression either of great translucence or of great muddiness—but in the latter there may be hidden possibilities."28
In the Essays Before a Sonata, Ives states that “Emerson was more of a discoverer of beauty than an imparter of it.”29 This reveals Ives’s artistic goal of Concord Sonata—he does not explicitly impart the beauty of the music. With the lack of bar lines as well as other specific performance instructions, Ives is not explicitly penning a composition that is not to be played in one single, particular way. It is the aim of Ives to provide the performer with a skeleton of a composition in which the performer becomes an interpreter who seeks and protracts the aesthetically attractive qualities within the music.
Ives’s respect for the performer of Concord Sonata is an example of the transcendentalist philosophy that this work represents. Instead of fully composing the work with the expectation of having the performer learn his own intentions for how the piece should sound, Ives imparted a portion of the compositional duties to the performer, who is expected to interpret the work. I would argue that this positivism adheres to the portion of the Encyclopaedia Britannica definition with regards to the “innate goodness of man.” When John Kirkpatrick was preparing to premiere the work (many years after it was written), he wrote to the composer to ask for amplified performance instructions. Ives replied with “do whatever seems natural or best to you, though not necessarily the same way each time.”30
Ives repeatedly referred to the sheet music of Concord Sonata as “transcriptions,” which reveals that portions of the piece (if not all of the piece) were conceived at the piano before being written down. The composer Arthur Berger observed that some of Ives's compositions capture a "sense of improvisation—and yet it's achieved with the performers playing the notes that are written.”31 The improvisatory nature of this piece allowed Ives to tinker with fragments of the “Emerson” ideas over the course of several years and this resulted in several compositions that employed similar “Emerson” melodic material. It was only after his heart problems in 1918 that he started to feel strongly compelled to complete works and have them performed.32
Ives was an accomplished pianist and organist so he was aware of the rigors of performing and recording. He believed, much like Emerson as an orator, that performances are meant to be fresh and in the moment. His accounts of recording his own piano music reflect his frustration with an artificial performance environment.33
Ives regarded “Emerson” as a work that was meant to be interpreted and it is this approach that the composer took when playing his own work. He said:
“It is a peculiar experience and, I must admit, a stimulating and agreeable one that I’ve had with this Emerson music. It may have something to do with the feeling I have about Emerson, for every time I read him I seem to get a new angle of thought and feeling and experience from him. ….I find that I don’t play or feel like playing this music even now in the same way each time.”34
As formerly mentioned, Ives offered to record several versions of Concord Sonata and then have an “acoustical genius” like Henry Cowell or Nicolas Slonimsky notate it.35 This quote exhibits a bittersweet tone—he is differing in opinion with these men while at the same time commending them for their talent. Perhaps Ives’s embrace of transcendentalism influences his overall positive view of human nature.
This same brand of sarcasm is evident through much of Ives’s writing in the Memos and Essays. His sarcastic attitude could be viewed as respectful towards the individual or group even if it is disagreeable. I would maintain that this is in line with the philosophy of transcendentalism (as defined by Encyclopaedia Britannica)—to believe in the “innate goodness of man.” Ives disagrees with others but does not alienate them. He sprinkles flattery in with harsh criticism and he also maintains a sense of humor. In the introductory footnote of Essays Before a Sonata Ives writes that the book is “written by the composer for those who can’t stand his music—and the music for those who can’t stand his essays; to those who can’t stand either, the whole is respectfully dedicated.”36 While sarcasm and humor may not necessarily be directly derived from Emerson or Thoreau, Ives’s respect for others represents his reverence for mankind and its goodness.
The interpretation of the “Emerson” movement does directly reference transcendentalism. Ives suggests that the tempo should vary with the “mood of the day, as well as that of Emerson, the other Concord bards, and the player.”37 This is important because he is suggesting that the melodic interpretation of this piece is not simply self-indulgent on the part of the performer, but should reference Emerson and the thoughts and feelings that his writings represent to the performer. Ives writes, “A metronome cannot measure Emerson’s mind and oversoul, any more than the old Concord Steeple Bell could.”38 This suggests that the traditional rhythmic conventions of music may be just as meaningful to the music as the church bell was to Emerson’s thought process. The church bell was perhaps peripheral to Emerson’s thoughts in the same way that traditional conventions of music are peripheral to a deeper meaning within the music. Also, this Concord reference could represent Ives’s thoughts about not only the place that he has dedicated this work but also the community that it represented. Ives did not openly broadcast socialist or anarchist beliefs but he did advocate for a world community of people with equal rights (I will not address whether or not he engaged in racist exoticism of African-American music and culture). The town of Concord perhaps represented to Ives a utopia of people that shared his system of ideals.
These performance notes indicate that Ives was aware that he was defying the performer’s expectations of how a composition should be written and how it should look on the page. Ives wrote a piece of music that omitted bar lines in much of the work and then challenged the performer to introspect and interpret the composition. This introspection is what I would consider to be what Encyclopaedia Britannica’s definition of transcendentalism refers to as the “supremacy of insight over logic and experience.” The logic and experience of a musician dictate that there should be bar lines. Musicians in our culture are generally taught to count and decipher rhythms and to play what is written on the page, but not to invent melodies or embellish them. Musicians are also taught to start and end without varying the tempo, but Ives advocates for drastic variation of tempo throughout the “Emerson” movement. When an accomplished musician performs Concord Sonata, the ability to read and perform music is only a portion of what is required from the pianist. It is necessary for the pianist to make uncharted musical decisions in order to elicit the beauty that is inherent within the music.
Stuart Feder claims that the favorite essay of Ives that Emerson wrote was entitled
“Circles,” where Emerson writes:
“Our life is an apprenticeship to the truth, that around every circle another can be drawn; that there is no end in nature, but every end is a beginning; that there is always another dawn risen on mid-noon, and under every deep a lower deep opens.”39
This poem may have significantly influenced the form and logic of Concord Sonata. The apprenticeship to the truth within Ives’s composition is represented by the performer’s attempt to harness the meaning of the score and to interpret that meaning to the listener. Perhaps, more importantly, Emerson’s notion that every end is a beginning is represented by Ives’s omission of bar lines. In addition to contributing to the rhythmic structure of a piece of music, bar lines also signal phrases, cadences, and the overall structure of a piece. Without bar lines, the sheet music only has a beginning and end and the order of the middle of the piece is not easily decipherable. When Emerson said that around every circle another can be drawn, Ives may have interpreted for this to refer to the overall form of Concord Sonata. While some may assume that there is a rambling form within the piece, perhaps this is what Ives intended—a piece with no bar lines has few cadences like “enclosed circles have no end in nature.”
There is also an interesting a perhaps coincidental parallel between this Emerson prose and Ives’s performance notes on “Emerson.” Emerson reflected on a “dawn risen on mid-noon” and in Ives’s performance notes he writes “The same essay or poem of Emerson may bring a slightly different feeling when read at sunrise than when read at sunset.”40 Both are referencing the passage of time by referring to “dawn” or “sunrise” and in both cases the sunrise could represent a beginning. Is this language a representation of transcendental philosophy? Perhaps it is prose that is indicative of a religious or spiritual realm of transcendentalism that I will not address. The word or the notion of “sunrise” could very possibly reflect a religious context and Ives’s expectation for a pianist to introspect in order to perform the work could possibly represent a deeper, spiritual meaning to the composer.
In the Essays Before a Sonata, Ives expounds on his feelings and beliefs in both musical and non-musical terms. Part one of the book coincides with Concord Sonata while part two is a collection of other various letters and essays that he compiled. Most importantly, much of this writing reflects Ives’s disdain for status quo politics and policies; some of his writing serves as a call for reform politics or policies. This adheres directly to the definition that Encyclopaedia Britannica includes that suggests transcendentalist believes reflect a “repudiation of the whole established order.” In the wake of World War I, Ives was passionate about the League of Nations and in 1914 sought what he called the “People’s World Nation.”41 In this essay, Ives advocates that the people of the world should unite as one and reject politicians, who are seeking power and forcing economic policies on weaker countries. In this essay as well as other writings, he firmly believes that humankind has the capacity to make decisions without governments, which he accuses of being brimming with corruption.
Another document that reflects Ives’s desire for a government that is more representative of its citizens is the “Stand by the President and the People” document. This document, written in 1917, is a reaction to WWI and is critical of politicians that he believes own too much property or hold other assets that affect the decisions that are made regarding wars or international commerce.42 Ives strongly favors President Woodrow Wilson because he feels that Wilson represents the citizens of the nation but is very angry about wealthy politicians governing war efforts. He specifically names Franklin Roosevelt, then the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, who Ives claims “inherited an easy living” and “never made a cent for himself in any legitimate business outside of politics.”43
Ives later wrote to President Roosevelt in 1938 advocating for the passage of the Ludlow Resolution, which was a proposed constitutional amendment that would have established a new policy in which war could only be declared after a nationwide referendum.44 This is yet another example of Charles Ives’s mistrust in the American political system and a desire for the people to govern as a whole and without a corrupt apparatus. The resolution nearly passed but was strongly contested by FDR and eventually failed; had it passed, wars in Korea, Vietnam, Iraq, and Afghanistan would have been decided by referendum.
Transcendentalists tended to hold political beliefs that leaned left and Ives’s sentiments are in line with this traditional philosophy. Ives was concerned with various humanitarian efforts and held a disdain for greedy politicians and warring nations. With regards to his music, Ives chose to write Concord Sonata to be a work that expresses the characteristics of transcendentalism. In addition to the difficulty of the work, the challenge for the performer is the interpretation, which was part of Ives’s design for the composition. The lack of bar lines, descriptive tempo markings, phrase markings, and cadential figures allow for the piece to be played differently even by repeated performances by the same pianist. Concord Sonata, referred to by the composer as a transcription of an improvisation, relies on the insight of the performer and is a reflection of Ives’s transcendental beliefs in the “innate goodness of man.” The form of the piece has been criticized as being nebulous, but Ives justifies this with his transcendental beliefs that expression trumps form and that beauty can be found in the hidden possibilities of his dense work. Ives created Concord Sonata referencing Emerson’s ideals about beauty, form, and unity. Emerson may have even been a father figure to Ives because of the emotional turmoil the composer felt surrounding the loss of his own father. Typically, writers do not address the lack of bar lines within significant portions of the work, but this omission could be argued as a transcendental expression of unity of form within the composition; the consequence of this bar line omission is a triumph of the performer’s intuition over the traditional logic that is required to play composed piano music. Charles Ives not only demonstrated a knowledge and affection for the writing of Ralph Waldo Emerson, he created with the Concord Sonata a work that is in cohesion with these ideals.
1 Charles Ives, Second Pianoforte Sonata: “Concord, Mass., 1840-1860.” (2nd edition, Arrow Music Press, Inc., 1947), performance notes.
2 Concord Sonata, Bojan Gorisek, Phantom CD, 2006.
3 Ives: Concord Sonata/Barber: Piano Sonata, Marc-André Hamelin, Hyperion CD, 2004.
4 Concord Sonata, Steven Mayer, Naxos CD, 2002.
5 Charles Ives: Piano Sonata No. 2 "Concord, Mass. 1840," Gilbert Kalish, Nonesuch CD, 1992.
6 Charles Ives and John Kirkpatrick, Charles E. Ives Memos. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 1972), 79.
7 Ibid., 80.
8 Stuart Feder, Charles Ives: "My Father's Song". (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 260.
9 Geoffrey Block, Ives: Concord Sonata. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 6.
10 Encyclopaedia Britannica, Online Library Edition, s.v. “Transcendentalism.”
11 Block, Concord Sonata, 68.
12 Ives and Kirkpatrick. Memos, 201.
13 Block, Concord Sonata, 71.
14 Charles Ives, Essays Before A Sonata and Other Writings. (New York: W. W. Norton & Company Inc, 1962), xxv.
15 Feder, Charles Ives, 258.
16 David Metzer, "We Boys": Childhood in the Music of Charles Ives." 19th-Century Music, no. 21 (Summer, 1997): 78.
17 Block, Concord Sonata, 48-49.
18 Ibid., 5.
19 Ives, Essays, 36.
20 Feder, Charles Ives, 260.
21 Feder, Charles Ives, 214-215.
22 Ibid., 258.
23 Metzer, 80.
24 Block, Concord Sonata, 201.
25 Whitesell, Lloyd. "Reckless Form, Uncertain Audiences: Responding to Ives." American Music, no. 12 (Autumn, 1994): 314.
26 Whitesell, 316.
27 Block, Concord Sonata, 196.
28 Whitesell, 314.
29 Ives, Essays, 21.
30 Ives and Kirkpatrick. Memos, 200-201.
31 Burkholder, J. Peter. Charles Ives: The Ideas Behind the Music. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985, 263.
32 Solomon, Maynard. "Charles Ives: Some Questions of Veracity." Journal of the American Musicological Society, no. 40 (Autumn, 1987): 464.
33 Ives and Kirkpatrick. Memos, 80-81.
34 Ives and Kirkpatrick. Memos, 79.
35 Ibid., 80.
36 Ives, Essays, 3.
37 Ives, Second Pianoforte Sonata, performance notes.
38 Ibid.
39 Feder, Charles Ives, 265.
40 Ives, Second Pianoforte Sonata, performance notes.
41 Ives, Essays, 228.
42 Ives, Essays, 137.
43 Ibid., 137.
44 Ibid., 215.
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